Abstract
This study examines the theoretical foundations of critical thinking through the perspectives of Roy Bhaskar and Henry Giroux and proposes a theoretical model for its educational development. To this end, George Bereday’s comparative method, comprising description, interpretation, juxtaposition, and comparison, was employed to analyze and contrast the theoretical perspectives of these two thinkers. A deductive approach was subsequently used to derive the proposed model from the identified theoretical foundations, while a synthetic method was employed to ensure the coherence and internal consistency of the resulting framework. The findings indicate that Bhaskar’s critical realism, grounded in a distinctive ontological and epistemological framework, provides a systematic philosophical foundation for conceptualizing critical thinking. Key dimensions of this perspective include ontological stratification, structurality, explanatory understanding, and emancipation. Giroux, while placing comparatively less emphasis on the deeper ontological and epistemological foundations of critical thinking, offers a pedagogically oriented framework that situates critical thinking within concrete social and educational contexts. By connecting critical thinking with social commitment, transformative action, and social justice, Giroux extends its significance from an individual cognitive capacity to a dimension of critical pedagogy and democratic education. The proposed theoretical model positions Bhaskar’s ontological and epistemological framework as a metatheoretical foundation, within which Giroux’s sociopolitical and cultural praxis is integrated at the levels of educational aims, principles, and pedagogical practices for fostering critical thinking. The model thus seeks to connect philosophical depth with pedagogical and sociopolitical engagement, providing an integrated framework for the education of critical thinking.
Synopsis
Critical thinking is widely recognized as an essential competency in contemporary education. However, prevailing psychological approaches often reduce it to a set of decontextualized cognitive skills, neglecting its philosophical underpinnings. This study aims to investigate the theoretical foundations of critical thinking based on the perspectives of Roy Bhaskar and Henry Giroux and to develop a theoretical model for its instruction. The primary objective is to move beyond formalistic and skill-based definitions of critical thinking and to propose an integrated framework that synthesizes Bhaskar’s philosophical depth with Giroux’s socio-political and pedagogical insights.
The study employs George Bereday’s four-step comparative method, comprising description, interpretation, juxtaposition, and comparison, to systematically analyze and contrast the theories of Bhaskar and Giroux. Following the comparative analysis, a deductive approach is used to extract educational goals and principles from the theoretical foundations, and a synthetic method is applied to ensure internal consistency of the novel integration. Bhaskar’s critical realism serves as the metatheoretical framework (metalanguage) for the synthesis, while Giroux’s critical pedagogy provides the socio-political and curricular dimensions.
The findings indicate that Bhaskar, through his critical realism and its stratified ontology (empirical, actual, and real), provides a coherent conceptualization of critical thinking characterized by structurality, explanatory understanding, emancipation, and attention to causal mechanisms. Conversely, although Giroux pays less attention to deep philosophical foundations—making his theory susceptible to criticisms of over-politicization and sloganism—he offers a compelling pedagogical framework by linking critical thinking to social commitment, transformative action, and social justice. The comparative analysis reveals shared commitments, including a Marxist heritage, the integration of critique and emancipation, and the interaction between structure and agency. Key differences lie in Bhaskar’s transcendental realism versus Giroux’s context-bound political critique. Based on these findings, a theoretical model is proposed in which Bhaskar’s ontological and epistemological frameworks serve as the metalanguage, and at the level of educational goals and principles, Bhaskar’s philosophical stance is organically synthesized with Giroux’s socio-political and cultural praxis.
Conclusion
The proposed model redefines critical thinking not merely as analytical reasoning but as a dialectical, emancipatory, and transformative activity embedded in social reality. It offers practical implications for curriculum development, teacher education, and instructional design. Specifically, the model suggests reorienting teacher roles from technicians to transformative intellectuals, fostering dialogic critical engagement in classrooms, cultivating "learned hope," and emphasizing structural and scientific methodologies in analyzing social issues. This integrated framework provides a robust theoretical foundation for critical pedagogy in higher education and schooling, addressing both philosophical rigor and practical relevance.